导语

　　在进行issue写作时，很多同学都会洋洋洒洒写很长，但分数仍然没有质的飞跃。其实，issue的写作最重要的不是观点是否新颖，例证是否完全具有说服力，而重要的是体现出你的逻辑思维能力，以及对于这个话题正反两方面的考量的认知。本期开始，我将连载一些我常用的issue段落构造方法，来分享一些issue写作心得。这些段落构造方法属于万能方法，并不针对于某一道题目。但是掌握了这些段落方法之后，相信大家在处理任何一道题目的时候都能更清晰地知道该从哪些角度思考落笔。

　　1、段落构造方法之假设攻击法

　　在写argument的时候，我们通常会检视文章中作者存在的stated or unstated assumptions。在issue中我们也可以同样“如法炮制”。

　　假设反驳法一般用于address反方观点时使用，一般我用于我的正文第三或第四段。在上期我们讲了说理立论法来支撑我们的观点。那么持反方观点的人也有可能写出同样的段落。我们只需要找到反方观点的人在reasoning时有哪些可能不正确的或者并非在任何情况下都成立的假设，并加以批驳，就可以自然成为一个段落了。

　　在寻找假设时，我们可以主要向两个方向思考，一个是前提假设-presupposition，一个是推理假设-assumption。

　　前提假设（presupposition）：即这个命题中存在的一些既定的、默认的内容。但是默认的未必是正确的。通过推翻前提假设，我们就可以写出一个反驳段落了。比如，你应该买iPhone，因为iPhone生态系统好。这个命题成立的一个前提假设就是，你有钱或者有需求买手机。如果买都买不起手机，那么是什么原因导致我应该买iPhone就显得不重要了。

　　推理假设（assumption）：推理假设即反方在对他的观点进行reasoning时，可能犯的逻辑错误。比如一个人对你说因为iPhone生态系统好，所以你该买iPhone。这个推理有一个假设就是“我”在购买手机是会非常看重生态系统，但是很可能我的手机使用需求不需要太过强大的生态系统。

　　总之，我们需要找到文字背后的这些taken for granted的信息，然后去对这个假设加以分析。通过这种方式我们就把一个issue的段落转化成了一个argument的段落结构，是不是事半功倍一劳永逸了呢。

　　2、段落结构

　　这种段落首先从分析反方的reasoning开始。反方可能想到什么样的理由来推出他的观点。然后我们再提炼出在这个推理过程中的假设，并进行批判，讨论假设什么时候可能是成立的，什么时候不成立即可。

　　一个典型的段落结构为：

　　（1） 第一句概括反方的观点。

　　（2） 两句话简要总结反方reasoning的过程。

　　（3） 指出反方的假设。

　　（4） 然后argument怎么写，这个issue就怎么写就行了，主要是去论述这个假设的合理性、局限性、何时可能不成立等。

　　比如下面这道题目：

　　Claim: It is no longer possible for a society to regard any living man or woman as a hero.

　　Reason: The reputation of anyone who is subjected to media scrutiny will eventually be diminished.

　　在题目中的推理中，如果一个人的声誉受损，人们就不会再视他为英雄。作者似乎在暗示，成为英雄的人必须有一个超级完美的人设。但其实并不必然。人们还是有自己的鉴别能力的。

　　范文：People who are supportive of this view imply that modern heroes should be perfect figures（点出假设）. But I think this assumption is incorrect, considering that most, if not all, adults are discerning（指出假设错误，并展开分析）. First, they know that there is no such thing as a  perfect person. They realize that people can do great things despite making errors in logic or occasionally slipping morally. In fact, imperfections may even inspire others to admire them more because they overcame the challenges or admitted their faults. They may not be god-like, but they are respected for being well-rounded role models demonstrating what is possible for others. Second, modern people know how to evaluate an individual's contribution, separating contributions from deficits when the two are in any way unrelated. For example, imagine a war hero who led his men fearlessly to safety in battle, and yet who lied on his tax return. He did not help his followers less in their time of need, even though he was less than upright at a different time.

　　3、示范段落

　　接下来，我再通过几个小题来给大家示范一下这种段落的写法。

　　01

　　例题1:

　　Teachers' salaries should be based on their students' academic performance.

　　解题：这道题目的支持者可以有各种理由认为教师的工资应该基于学生的学术表现，但是无论支持者如何展开自己的逻辑，他都有一个前提假设（presupposition），那就是学生的学术表现（academic performance）是可以量化的。但是学生的学术表现真得能够量化吗？我们可以对这样一个前提假设进行攻击展开讨论。

　　范文：At the root of this issue is an important question: How do you gauge academic performance? It may seem apparent that grades show how well a student is doing, but there are many other factors to take into consideration. First is the difficulty in quantifying subjective topics like visual arts, music, or creative writing. Is it possible to make a scale that accurately determines a student’s proficiency in terms of style, tone, or emotional impact that is possible to use across all teachers who deliver that subject? Using current grading standards, some personal preference will invariably enter the equation. Secondly, even if such a scale could be developed, would it be possible to apply that scale across all subjects? Unless the scale is consistent, it is impossible to compare, and subsequently fairly reward, the success of teachers in such varied fields as physical education, mathematics, and language. Finally, academic performance needs to be clarified as meaning the amount learned by a student in a class or the final level of the student. To make this point more clear, compare the progress of a beginning student who has never spoken a foreign language with that of a student who practiced for a summer in an exchange program. The second student will demonstrate a higher level of communication at the end of the first term, but the first student may have learned significantly more. Since the teacher put more effort into training the first student than the second, the change in level over a term should be acknowledged in the evaluation of academic performance.

　　在这个段落中，我列举了在衡量学生academic performance上的几个难点。第一，评分会掺杂个人评价，不够客观。第二，不同学科之间无法形成统一的度量衡。第三，如何客观评价每个个体的进步呢？通过这几点难处的讨论，我试图展示这个statement的前提就可能存在很多问题，即academic performance不好衡量，如果不好衡量，教师的工资又该如何公平的基于此呢？

　　02

　　例题2：Human beings should make efforts to save endangered species only if the potential extinction of those species is the result of human activities.

　　人类是否应该仅仅为那些因为人为活动而灭绝的动物负责？这看起来是一个权责分明的论断，符合大家的认知：我聊的骚我处理，但是屎盆子不能乱扣。不过，这种论断有一个前提就是人们可以清晰地评估哪些动物灭绝会归咎于人类。但是，这个世界太复杂了，人们根本无法知道哪些动物灭绝是人类直接或间接造成的。甚至即使知道，也会因为一些原因相互扯皮。所以，我们就可以攻击这个假设喽！

　　范文：At first glance, it seems fair to save endangered species only when it is our activity as humans that is contributing to the extinction of the species. We have driven some species of pangolins to the verge of extinction through hunting and poaching, for example, so advocates insist we should make every effort to protect the remaining animals and their habitats to bolster populations. But is it truly possible to trace the cause of every population decline? Continuing the discussion of pangolins, one secondary threat is diminishing prey, as pangolins subsist on certain species of ants and termites, and another is habitat loss due to climate change. Would pangolins actually be headed towards extinction without human interference? Global warming is related to the release of greenhouse gasses, so is aggravated by human activity, but there have been trends of warming and cooling throughout the millennia which were not caused by humans. Are we responsible for protecting every single species that is unable to cope with the changing environment? In reality, it is impossible in most cases to isolate a single source that is responsible for extinction. Therefore, the claim that humans should save certain species that they are responsible for may be compassionate but is based on fallacious reasoning.

　　03

　　Claim: Knowing about the past cannot help people to make important decisions today.

　　Reason: The world today is significantly more complex than it was even in the relatively recent past.

　　世界越来越复杂，所以知道过去无法帮助我们现在做决定。这个推理中假设了世界越来越复杂之后，现在和过去的情况完全不同，所以知道过去也无用，因为大家面对的都是新的情况。但是，其实再复杂的场景也可能是过去的重复，也就是说完全相同的情景或许极为少见，因此人们还是可以利用过往的经验做出决断的。

　　范文：A pessimistic view of the value of understanding history may stem from the fact that the world is increasingly complicated. Indeed, new inventions and concepts emerge every second, and with these novelties come unprecedented problems. From this standpoint, it is reasonable to argue that there are no identical situations between the present and the past. However, Exaggerating the differences while overlooking the similarities is not conducive to any decision making. In fact, when faced with completely new situations, our only reliable tool is our knowledge derived from past experience. The covid-19 pandemic offers a graphic illustration because it is a novel problem being fought with time-honored methods. Asian cultures immediately drew upon past experience and recommended that populations wear masks in public. That solution worked for controlling the spread of diseases in the past, and indeed, it has helped stop greater transfer of covid-19. By contrast, Americans are not used to wearing masks, and many refused to comply with official suggestions rather than examine the positive effects of mask use in other countries. America experienced one of the worst outbreaks of the disease because of this reluctance to learn from prior examples.

　　以上就是我们今天介绍的假设攻击法。总结起来，就是要找到反方推理逻辑中的假设，这个假设可以是前提假设（presuppoistion），也可以是推理中的假设（assumption），通过我们对于这些assumption的批判和分析，我们就可以构造一个非常丰满的段落了。

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